Part III. Purim and the Book of Esther – Laws, Customs, and Traditions

Part III. Purim and the Book of Esther – Its Laws, Customs, and Traditions

This is Part III of a four-part series. To visit the other parts, click on one of the links below:

• Part I. Purim and the Book of Esther – Where’s the Evidence that the Story is Real?
• Part II. Purim and the Book of Esther – Origin, History, and Evolution of the Holiday
• Part III. Purim and the Book of Esther – Laws, Customs, and Traditions <current>
• Part IV. Purim and the Book of Esther – History and Origin of Hamantaschen (and Recipe)

Photo of a Purim celebration in Jerusalem [Source: Wikipedia.org – By Yoninah – Own work, CC BY 2.5]

D. Customs and Traditions for Celebrating Purim

For a holiday that was “late” in the occurrence of Jewish celebrations, there are plenty of customs and traditions that have evolved over the years. Unfortunately, most secular Jews outside of Israel take advantage of this celebration besides the sometimes-customary purchase of a box of grocery-store Hamantashen (and only in areas where they are available). If your kids are in a Sunday or after-school Hebrew School, then maybe you will be attending a reading of the magillah with your kids getting dressed up for the costumed parade. Below are descriptions and some history of some I have already mentioned, along with many other traditions for the Purim holiday (some of which you may not have heard of before). As for the laws of observing Purim, that there are four basic mitzvahs/ commandments: Reading of the Megillah, giving money the poor, giving food, having a feast. All of the Purim laws, customs, and traditions are described below:

1. Hamantaschen

So let’s start with the easy one. Hamantashen, as most Jews know (religious or not) are three-sided cookies with a filling at its center. Luckily for you, I go into a much deeper discussion in the next section about Purim’s culinary delicacy.

2. Mishloach Manot

This is the sending gifts of food to your friends, family, and other members of our community. The tradition of Mishloah Manot comes directly from the Book of Ester. Verse 9 reads “Therefore the Jews of the village, that dwelt in the walled towns, made the 14^th day of gladness and feasting, a holiday, and of sending portions to one another.”  Some scholars believe that this practice is performed to counteract Haman’s thoughts that the Jewish people were scattered and divided.  This act displays a unification of the community. Some, such as Rabbi Yonah Metzger, even believe that food does not need to be sent, and can be replaced by words of the Torah – or by acts of kindness. Another reason for this tradition may have its roots in charity, according to Rabbi Israel Isserlin, the sending of food ensures that all can enjoy the holiday (even those that may not otherwise have the means to do so).

3. Drinking Wine

Because wine was the vessel used to bring about the miracle of Purim (getting king Achashverosh drunk) and the consumption of wine is what initiated Esther becoming Queen (drunkenness at the feast with Vashti at the beginning of the story [Fast Fact: Vashti was the great granddaughter of Nebuchadnezzer, the king that destroyed the First Temple]), alcohol (especially wine) is consumed in great portions during Purim. The rabbis in Megilla 7b state that people should get so drunk that they cannot distinguish between the evil Haman and the blessed Mordechai.  Most rabbis, however, would state that if you do drink, drink more than usual, but not to such a complete excess. Rabbis also point out that one should get drunk on the concept of Purim and not on the wine.

The earliest references to the holiday were very somber and ritualistic, with drinking being frowned upon.  It was the Babylonian Talmud that provided some of the framework for it being more festive and jovial, with the inclusion of drinking. It may have been the rift between the Hasmoneans in the West (in modern Israel) and the Babylonian Jews (as mentioned above) that may have provided the basis for the change in nature for its observance to be more celebratory.

4. Listening to the Reading of the Megilla

As mentioned earlier, reading and listening to the recitation of the Megilla (Book of Esther) is an obligation on Purim. According to the sages, this is so important that it supersedes all other positive (shall do) mitzvahs, including study of the Torah (the only exception is the burial of the dead).  It is also important that listeners hear each and every world. Listeners should have a copy of the Book of Esther in front of them so that they will be able to see/read every word, just in case they cannot hear one.  [Fast fact: Before reading begins, the scroll is to be folded into the form of a letter.] The person reciting the Book of Esther does so in a special cantillation (reading style/prose/melody). The reader will pause when they get to the four verses relating to the redemption of Israel (which allows the attendees to recite the verses, and repeated by the orator).

• Chapter 2, line 5: There was a Jewish man in Shushan
• Chapter 8, line 15: And Mordechai went from before the king in royal clothing
• Chapter 8, line 16: The Jews had illumination, and
• Chapter 10, line 3: For Mordechai was deputy to the king

Other modifications to the reading also include the recitation of Chapter 6, line 1 a little louder (and a different melody) to add some drama, because that is the point where the plot of Haman begins to unfold (“That night the sleep of the king was disturbed.”). Chapter 9, lines 6 thru 10 are read in one single breath, so indicate that all of those mentioned were killed (e.g., Haman’s 10 sons and their 500 followers).  In many temples, the congregants will make loud noises (through shouting or using different instruments, such as graggers) whenever the name of Haman is mentioned.

5. Blotting Out the Name of Haman: Shouting, Graggers / Groggers, Noisemakers, etc.

Picture of a Purim Grogger [Source: Wikipedia.org – By Yoninah – Own work, Public Domain]

It has become a custom in many synagogues for the congregation to make noise whenever the name of Haman is mentioned – to show their disgust and to blotting his name out of existence. The custom may have its roots in the Torah. Deuteronomy 15:19 states that one should “blot out the memory of Amalek from under heaven.”  Since the Book of Esther states that Haman is a descendent of Agag the Amalekite, the practice is thus hereditarily applicable (in a biblical sense). 

There are early references for the cursing of Haman, such as in the Jerusalem Talmud, in the early 3^rd century, where Rabbi Aha (the Amora Rav) states that one must curse Haman and his sons – although he does not provide a time during the reading as to when this is to occur.

6. Making Noise

According to the 1906 edition of the Jewish Encyclopedia, the custom of making noise and being boisterous when Haman’s name is mentioned began in the 13^th century in France and Germany.

One early custom of blotting out Haman’s name comes from Provence, France, where children would write the name of Haman on flat rocks, and clap or grind them together when the evil name is mentioned (and erasing the name when doing so; children too young to write would draw pictures of him). Taking noise with stones has been taken to a greater extreme – an old Dutch custom is to write Haman’s name on a stone, and then hammer the stone until it breaks. Other people just yell when his name is mentioned. Banging the walls was also popular in some German synagogues (to demonstrate the beatings Haman received when he went to hell).  Another old German custom is to write Haman’s name on the head of a hammer, and bang the hammer until the name is erased.  A custom at a Sephardic synagogue from the early 1900s was to write Haman’s name on a piece of paper, and erase it when his name is read.

However, since an obligation of Purim is to hear every word of the Megilla, some rabbis were/are opposed to the noise.  In the past, making noise during the reading could get you thrown out of the temple.  In recent years, some synagogues that allow noise, provide signals for the congregants to begin and end the noise (such as a green and red light), or the reader provides a long enough pause after saying the name so that all congregants can get rowdy, then regain their compusure. [Note: In my own temple, during the “kids” reading, a picture of Haman is shown on a screen – you can only make noise when his picture is shown.]

Besides hammers and rocks, it has become a custom to use other noisemakers, such as graggers (also spelled groggers; also known as ratchets; and called ra’ashanim in Hebrew; the word gragger is Yiddish and may have derived from the Polish word grzeragz ). The gragger has a handle, with a noise-maker attached to it’s top. When a user swings the noisemaker around, it makes noise.

7. Burning of Haman’s Effigy

Jews may have taken the sentence in Deuteronomy 15:19 a little too literally and have been burning an effigy of Haman since the 4^th century. There was a custom in ancient Babylon to hand an effigy 4-5 days before Purim, then burn the effigy in a bonfire – once lit, the boys & young men would jump through the fire (see Sanhedrin 64a).  In 408, Emperor Theodosius II actually created a law prohibiting the burning of the Haman effigy (which was usually burnt upon a cross to also hold Christianity in contempt).  Throughout history, various Jewish communities have continued this practice.

8. Charity / Manot La’Evyonim

Purim is not only a holiday for revelry and enjoyment for oneself.  It is a celebration where one should also thing outwardly and help the less fortunate.  Above I had mentioned two customs in this regard.  The first is to donate a half shekel to your synagogue (donate money to a Jewish organization, who might distribute to the needy), and the secondly to donate directly to the poor (called manot la’evyonim).

9. Purim Spiel / Purim Shpiel and Parody

The Purim Spiel is a play that is put on during Purim. It is usually performed by the local congregants, and many times is a zany parody or satirical reenactment of the story of Esther (spiel is Yiddish for “play”); however, the reenactment could be more serious, and even retell other stories from the Bible or a story with a Jewish-moral theme. The spiel may be performed by many actors, or could simply be a single orator without a performance including dramatic flair. Some of the spiels could also be of a non-religious nature. Just as in theater taking place in other parts of the world during the Middle Ages, these spiels were also performed almost exclusively by boys and men (and was the only day of the year where cross-dressing was allowed).

Cantor Janet Leuchter interestingly points out that the performing of plays, and theater in general was frowned upon by the great rabbis and sages. However, she reasons that their attitude stems from the era in which they lived under the control of the Ancient Romans. Public entertainment was usually cruel and violent (imagery of the Coliseum comes to mind). When a drama was performed where an actor was killed, they would use a slave (which many times would have been a Jew) in place of the actor, and actually murder them on stage.

A person may also create a parody or satire (called a “Purim Tractate” or Masekhet Purim) of halacha (Jewish Law) or a known rabbinical text, and then recite their modified version in front of an audience. Although, as one author noted, this has become less popular today, possibly due to the “excessively defensive mood that has taken religious Jewry.”

The Purim spiel productions are thought to have their origins in the mid-1500s in Ashkenazi synagogues in Europe. However, smaller reenactments, such as the hanging and burning of the effigy of Haman had been occurring since the 4^th century. The Purim spiels is a custom that has endured in many synagogues throughout the world even today.

10. Costumes and Masquerading

The holiday of Purim is based upon the story of Esther.  At the core of the story are the themes of drunkenness and deception.  The drunkenness is explained above, with by over-drinking during the holiday. No Virginia, Purim is not the Jewish answer to Halloween, the pageantry of wearing costumes (by children, and adults), and then masquerading them in public is to symbolize the deception utilized by Esther to help save the Jews.

The wearing of customs was a custom that had begun during the 15^th century, and possibly originated in Italy.  The earliest known mention of wearing costumes on Purim was by Jewish writer Kalonymus ben Kalonymus in Sefer Even Bochen 39 in the early 13^th century (he disproved of wearing costumes).

The earliest guidance on wearing costumes during the holiday can be found in a late-15^th century Responsa (#17) written by Rabbi Yehuda Mintz (who lived in Italy) [Fast Fact: A Responsa is a response/answer to a question of Jewish law by a Rabbi.  This specific Responsa dealt with the validity of wearing costumes on Purim, and even more specifically, the dressing as women by men – the answer to both was yes since it was for the purposes of violating Jewish law, but for following the joyousness of the holiday]. Historian Moritz Steinschneider, in the late 1800s, theorized that the custom has its roots in the ancient Roman carnivals, which were modified by the Roman Catholics and other Eastern Orthodox sects, such as Mardi Gras/Fat Tuesday/Shrove Tuesday (which occur in around the time of Purim, in February on the day before Lent), and adapted by some Jewish communities. [Note that some, such as Rabbi Yair Hoffman, strongly denies the validity of this theory.]

The origin of this practice is not known, but a few other possible theories include:

• One of the leading explanations is that it mimics the deception and disguise used by Esther – a woman that became queen, without the knowledge of the king or his court that she was a Jew; and used this deception to save the lives of Jews of her community.
• An opposite way of thinking of the origin of wearing costumes (according to Rav Yitzchok Weizz (1902-1989)) is due to Haman’s deception of masking / hiding his hate for the Jews when he petitioned king Achashveros for their destruction.
• The practice may have begun by the poor in Europe that went around their town from house to house scaring children and asking for money (maybe even performing short spiels).
• One theory places the motivation for costumes to the diaspora, and the fact that many Jews needed to go into disguise both inwardly (convert to other religions) and/or outwardly (suppress public displays of Judaism – practice, clothing, and thought). This was a way to commemorate the disguises that Jews have had (and still need to) wear today – even in “progressive” countries such as the United States.
• The disguise could be that of G-d’s in the story of Esther.  His name does not appear anywhere in the text, yet Rabbi Akiva had stated that the story was divinely inspired. The costumes may be related to G-d working covertly and therefore wearing costumes symbolizes his hidden assistance.
• One explanation provides that people wear costumes “minimize the embarrassment of the poor” who are collecting charity/donations.
• Rav Avrohom Yehoshua Heschel, a prominent rabbi in the late 18^th & early 19^th centuries (also known as the Apter Rov), believed that the custom began to show the two sides of the story; it was one that could have had dire consequences for the Jews, but the opposite had thankfully occurred.
• The great sage Rashi (11^th century, France) connects the Amalekits and the Parsha Zachor (a reading from the Bible, entitled Zachor) with the wearing of costumes.  When the Amalekites spoke to the Israelites (in this reading), they changed their language, and according to Rashi, they also changed their clothing.  The reading occurs around the same time as Purim, which created the correspondence to wear costumes, not to mention the connection with Haman, who is said (in the Megilla) to be a decedent of the Amalekites.
• The custom comes about from the interpretation of a sentence from the Megilla (9:1) “but the reverse was true.” This refers to the deception used – and the use of masquerading show this.
• The Megilla itself may also have a second source of wearing costumes. Book of Esther 8:17 reads “And many people of other nationalities became Jews because fear of the Jews had seized them.” So it may be the disguises of the non-Jews, pretending to be part of the tribe, that is the source of this custom.
• A third tie-in to the Megilla, is from Book of Esther 8:15, in which Mordechai dresses in regal clothing. The dressing in costumes emulates Mordechai’s act, instead of a focus on deception. [Food for Thought: Was Mordechai’s vestments those of a royal nature, or those of a priest?]

Note that in some communities, it is customary to dress in your Sabbath-best on Purim (and beginning the previous evening (as per Hilchot Purim 695:1:3)). On a semi-related note, the prohibition against shatnez (the wearing of a garment made of both wool and linen) has been lenient in some religious communities on Purim.

I have to admit, there was a lot more to the origin of wearing costumes than I had originally imagined before performing research for this article. There are a lot more theories on its origin than I would have expected.

11. Purim Carnival

If one goes by the traditional theory for the origin of this holiday, it began with feasting and reveling – which probably also included parading throughout the streets.  The carnivals probably became more elaborate as time went on – and as mentioned above, may have been adapted from either Roman or various Christian carnivals. Although I speculate that the Purim carnival itself correlates to the evolution of masquerading costumes, there are not many research materials out there on the evolution of the carnival itself. Just as the wearing of costumes may have its origins in copying the Fat Tuesday / Mardi Gras carnival, it is also likely that the Purim carnival also has similar roots.

12. Purim Rabbi

Some Yeshivas (Jewish/Hebrew schools) may chose a top student to be sit at the head seat at a meal during Purim.  During this meal, the student (who also may be dressed as a member of the Yeshiva) would provide a bible-inspired lecture in a witty and humorous fashion (as long as it does not disparage the Torah or embarrass anyone). This is a custom that may have begun in Lithuania.

13. Learning Torah

Some communities use the holiday as an opportunity to learn Torah, and it has become an annual custom. An organization named Agudath Israel has been providing a learning program every Purim morning called “Yeshivas Mordechai Hatzadik” to promote this custom (with programs across the world).

14. Purim Traditions Around the World

Although there has been some conformity over the years in custom and traditions, there are a few non-traditional means of celebrating the holiday in various areas around the world.  Below is a list of some of these alternate customs.  Note that some may not be in practice anymore since the Jewish pollutions are very small (or no longer in existence in these countries) – although they may have been brought to other countries with them. [Note that food customs/traditions are mentioned in the next section (Seudah).]

• Burning Effigy – Effigies of Haman are set on fire in Iran, and children would circle the burning effigy while singing.
• Cactus – A cactus with many branches would be found in Iran, and ten of the branches would be pulled off and burnt (to represent Haman’s ten sons). Or they would throw darts at them; the juice that leaked was known as “Haman’s tears” begging them for their forgiveness.
• Candles – Candles would either be molded into pyramids or as images of Haman and his wife in Frankfurt, Germany (18^th century), then burned on the reading desk within the synagogue.
• Challah – A challah would be baked in Morroco with boiled eggs.  These eggs were to represent Haman, and cutting into the eggs would be known as tearing out Haman’s eyes.
• Fiancé – A man would give gifts and sweet treats to his fiancé in Persia.
• Gifts – It was not Chanukah that was the big gift holiday in Persia, for Jews, it was traditionally on Purim that gifts were exchanged (possibly because it was close to the time of Persian New Year).
• Gunpowder – In Germany, they would add gunpowder to torches when Haman’s name is mentioned, which obviously produce a loud “bang.”
• Nuts – In the Middle Ages Children would divide into two groups on opposite sides of the street and nuts at each other in Italy while adults rode between the two groups holding pine branches or blowing the trumpet. [Question – does anyone know why?]
• Parade – In Israel, a number of towns/cities hold a parade on Purim called the Adloyada (from the term “drink until you cannot tell the difference between Haman and Mordechai” – the phrase “Until No One Longer Knows” in Aramaic is Ad delo yada.) The parade first began in Tel Aviv in 1912, and includes many participants, floats, and spectators. Although its popularity had dwindled over the years, it has rekindled its spark since the beginning of this century.
• Riding on Animals – In reference the Book of Esther (6:11), where they mention that Mordechai was brought through the city on horseback, Egyptian Jews will ride through the streets on horseback, or other animals, such as mules, camels, or donkeys.
• Scarecrow – Scarecrows made in the effigy of Haman are dragged through the streets in Yemen.
• Snowman – A large snowman of Haman is built near the synagogue (with a chain of watermelon peels around its neck), and then after the Purim feast families would gather, build a bon fire and watch Haman melt; This occurs in Bukhara, Uzbekistan.
• Stomping – Cutouts of Haman are stomped on in Afghanistan.
• Visit the Tomb of Esther and Mordechai – In Iran, it is customary for Jews (many believe that they are decedents of Esther) to visit the Tomb of Esther and Mordechai (in Hamadan).  Women will visit the tomb and pray for miracles.
• Wood – When men came home from temple in the Black Sea/Caspian area (called Caucasus), women would ask what’s this? Referring to wood which they had blackened during the day. The men would answer “Haman,” and the wood would be thrown onto the fire to burn.

This list is not complete, there are other traditions and customs connected to the holiday of Purim, but this should provide a good list for those that are curious.

15. Seudah (Festive Meal) – Foods Eaten on Purim

There are a number of dishes & Foods eaten during Purim, including a number of items that are particular to different cultures or parts of the world.  Some of these include the following:

• Boyoja Ungola Di Purim – A challah baked in Morocco with hard boiled Eggs.  When slicing the eggs in the challah, it is like tearing out Haman’s eyes.
• Caveos Di Aman – A pasta dish from Bulgaria, which translates to “Haman’s Hair”
• Chickpeas & Beans – In celebration of Esther’s keeping kosher and hide her Jewish identity while living in the palace she ate chick peas and beans during her stay, so these have become a part of the Purim food tradition for many families. [For more information see “The Curious Case of Esther and the Chickpeas”]
• Ears of Haman – More commonly known as Hamantaschen
• Elephant’s Ears (Iran) – an Iranian donut (known in Arabic as gosh-e-fil) in the shape of an ear and deep fried.
• Fish dishes – because fish is the sign of the month of Adar (which Purim occurs)
• Folares – These are hard boiled eggs cooked inside pastry to look like a cage.  The egg represents Haman, trapped inside.
• Gondi – A meatball stuffed with raisins and nuts made in Persia
• Haman’s Ears – See Hamantashen
• Haman’s Fingers (Travadicos) – A sweet pastry baked into long shapes to represent Haman’s fingers in Greece and Turkey
• Hamantaschen (or Haman Taschen or oznei Haman in Hebrew) – begun in Eastern Europe. Also called Haman’s Ears because it is believed that his ears were triangular
• Koloocheh (Persian Purim Cookies) – a cookie made of shortdough made for Purim in Persia
• Kreplach – Kreplach is eaten on three holidays, based on the etymology of the word: Yom Kippur, Hoshanna Rabba, and Purim
• Kulich – A long, thin, braided challah baked in Russia to represent the rope that was supposed to hang Mordechai, but inevitably was used to hang Haman.
• Legumes and seeds – Eaten in reference to Esther who supposedly ate vegetarian dishes while living in the King’s palace, so as to not eat unkosher meats.
• Nanbrangi – A Persian treat covered with poppy and/or sesame seeds.  The seeds represent Haman’s “fleas”
• Orecchi di Aman – An Italian treat, baked in the shape of Haman’s ears (not to be confused with Hamantaschen)
• Puram Poli – A sweet flatbead made for Purim in India. India is mentioned in the Book of Esther (1:1), where it states that Achashveros ruled from India to Ethiopia.
• Purim Challah – A raisin-infused bread baked especially for Purim
• Salonikan Haman cakes – In Greece cakes in the form of Haman were baked on Purim, and put out onto window ledges during the day, then sliced up an eaten after the Purim festival.
• Sambusak El Tawa – pastry filled with chicken and vegetables (Iran)
• Shoshanat Yaakov (The Rose of Jacob) – a challah baked in Eastern Europe that is floral shaped to represent that song, which is sung after the reading of the Megilla.
• Turkey – to remember that King Achashverosh ruled the areas that included the modern area of Turkey

E. Why do Karaites Celebrate Purim?

Last year I wrote about the Karaite Jews and learned that they do not Celebrate Chanukah since its events occurred after they had broken off from rabbinical Judaism (and like Purim, is not mentioned in the Torah).  So, while performing research for this article I was surprised to learn that they celebrate Purim.

1. Differences in Celebration between Karaites and Rabbinical Jews

Purim is celebrated, for the most part by Karaites, just like the Rabbinical Jews (which Karaites refer to as Rabbanites). However, there are a few differences [the following list is based on an article by Shawn Joe Lichaa]:

• Number of Days Celebrated. Karaites celebrate the holiday over 2 days (14^th and 15^th of Adar). This is based on their interpretation of a passage in the Book of Esther 9:17-19. The passages state that Jews in villages celebrated on the 14^th of Adar, and those in walled cities celebrated on another day – but it does not explicitly state that it is the 15^th of Adar. The next passage (9:20-21) contains the letter from Mordechai telling all Jews to celebrate on the two days. However, he does not distinguish between walled and non-walled cities. The Rabbinic sages interpreted this as two different days based on the city, Karaites interpreted Mordechai’s letter as telling all Jews to celebrate on both days. To the point of the Karaite’s thought, the following passages (22-32) do refer to the holiday as occurring over multiple days.
• Leap Years (Adar I or Adar II?). As discussed above, during “leap years” an additional month is added to the Hebrew calendar (which is the same for both Rabbanites and Karaites); during those years there is both an Adar I and an Adar II. Rabbinical Judaism celebrates Purim during Adar II.  However, the Book of Esther states that the holiday should be celebrated during the 12^th month of the year, which during a leap year would be Adar I – which means that Karaites will celebrate the holiday a month earlier than the Rabbanites cousins during leap years.
• Mishloach Manot. Rabbinic Judaism specifies that this gifts of mishlaoch manot are to be of food, while Karaites may give food or other items, including money, and likewise, gifts to the poor (manot la’evyonim) need not only be money.
• Drinking. The custom of drinking (or over-drinking) is not part of the Karaite’s celebration of the holiday. Note that customs such as the Purim shpiel, carnivals, games (including gambling) are all the same.
• Reading the Megillah. Karaites recite the Megillah once during each of the two days (versus once in the morning and once in the evening via Rabbinic law).
• Fast of Esther. The Karaites do not fast for Purim.
• Psalms. A Karaites custom is to recite Psalm 121 (Shir Lama’a lot) during Purim.
• Lighting Candles. Another Karaite custom that differs from Rabbanites is the lighting of candles.  This custom originates from the Book of Esther 8:16, which reads “The Jews had light and gladness and joy and honor.”
• Food. There are two traditional deserts baked for Purim by Karaites, Bughashah (cream-filled rectangular shaped strudel) and Wedan Haman (the Karaite version of “Haman’s Ears”). Note that Hamantashen is not a traditional dessert served by Karaites for this holiday.

2. The Obligation of Celebrating Purim

For post-Torah observation such as Purim, Chanukah, and the Four Fasts (Tisha B’Av, Fast of Gedalia, Asara B’Tevet, and Shiva Asar B’Tammuz), there have been varying thoughts by Karaite sages as to whether these are obligatory, or just customary.

The Karaite sages Aaron ben Elijah and Elijah Bashyachi both argue that Purim (and the Four Fasts) should be observed (although they come about their decisions via different reasoning), however, others such as Hakham Moshe Firrouz believe that the holiday is just customary and not binding. Firrouz’s reasoning is straight-forward – the holiday is not mentioned in the Torah and not commanded by G-d, so it need not be followed. 

3. Why Celebrate Purim and Not Chanukah?

To answer my original question in this subsection, one explanation as to why Purim is celebrated and not Chanukah, was answered by Aaron ben Elijah in Gan Eden, stating Purim is celebrated because it was canonized during the time of the prophets, while Chanukah was not:

“And we became obligated and took upon ourselves [the celebration of Purim], for this  in the time of prophets and the prophets affirmed this.” [Gan Eden, Inyan Yom HaKipurim, was Ch.5, pg.64b]

But, as noted, this is not a universal thought by all Kariates.

4. Special Purim

According to some sources, there is a Special Purim celebrated on the 1^st of Shevat to celebrate the release of Yerushalmi, a Karaite leader, from prison (in a year unknown).

[Fast Fact: Ethiopian Jews/Beta Israel celebrate Purim by observing the Fast of Esther, which is a three-day-long fast, where they can eat only at night (Esther fasted for 3 days in the Megillah). The Book of Esther is a canonized part of their liturgy. Note that it is not a fast for the entire community; usually only the religious leaders and the more pius members of the community that fast. The dates of the Hebrew calendar and the calendar followed by the Beta Israel never matched up, and the observance of the fast can begin anywhere between the 11^th and 13^th of the month of the 11^th month (of Nissan).]

That’s The Whole Megilla

What started as an idea for a short article on whether there was any evidence that the Book of Esther was real, wound up to be a long story, a megillah. Although megillot is Hebrew for the Hebrew scrolls, there is also a word “megillah” that comes from Yiddish, and over the years, the two have morphed together.

As mentioned, megillah, is a word that has a Yiddish origin. It comes from the word megile, which translates literally in English as a “long letter” or “long document.” However, the word megillah and “big megillah” have evolved over the years to connote other meanings, such as:

• A big shot (person)
• Used sarcastically, someone who is full of themselves or full of hot air
• Long-winded or drawn-out story
• The “whole thing” (akin to “the whole enchilada”)
• Someone acting silly
• A big thing (event, item, idea)

For you Frank Sinatra fans [which I am] –Sinatra sang the word “megillah” in the lyrics of his 1963 song “Come Blow Your Horn” written by legendary Jewish songwriter Sammy Cahn [Fast fact: Cahn’s most well-known hit was the Christmas song “Let It Snow! Let it Snow! Let it Snow!” co-written with another famed Jewish songwriter, Jule Styne.] “Come Blow Your Horn” was also the title of Neil Simon’s first Broadway Play, which was later adapted into a movie of the same name in 1963 (the screenplay was written by Norma Lear and directed by Bud Yorkin (as an FYI – Simon, Lear, and Yorkin were all Jewish). The movie earned one Oscar Nomination (for art direction; of the four directors, one was Jewish – Hal Pereira (also brother to famous architect William Pereira (e.g., Transamerica Pyramid building)). If you were wondering, the song was featured on the soundtrack of the movie.

To read a different part of this Article, click on the desired link below:

• Part I. Purim and the Book of Esther – Where’s the Evidence that the Story is Real?
• Part II. Purim and the Book of Esther – Origin, History, and Evolution of the Holiday
• Part III. Purim and the Book of Esther – Laws, Customs, and Traditions <current>
• Part IV. Purim and the Book of Esther – History and Origin of Hamantaschen (and Recipe)

[A compiled list of sources for this article appears at the end of Part IV]

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RITES OF PASSAGE

In the magnificent wonder that is life there is a beginning.  There is the miracle of birth – the start of something special.  Life eventually comes to an end.  Most of the time, the end comes far too soon, as I know all too well. During the cycle of life there comes a time when the seed grows into a tree, the bud blossoms into a flower, the fruit ripens into a delectable morsel, and the child becomes an adult.

Reading from the Torah (Source: Wikipedia)

Keeping Up With the Brooks

Although the blossoming of a child into adulthood is a natural procession, many cultures and religions have their own rituals for coming of age.  A person very dear to me will be undergoing this very ritual, as commanded in the Jewish religion, called a Bat Mitzvah. It is a rite of passage that every child goes through in their passage to adulthood in the eyes of their religion.  The earliest known “Bar Mitzvah” (Bar for boys, Bat for girls) may have been written about thousands of years ago in the Torah itself.  Genesis 21:8 states “And the child [Isaac] grew and was weaned, and Abraham made a great feast on the day that Isaac was weaned.”  In Pirkei Arvot (a book of the Mishnah), it discusses that this “weaning” occurred on Isaac’s 13^th birthday, and was his rite of passage in which he was weaned out of his childish being, and stepping into his adult responsibilities. This was followed by a feast. What exactly does weaned mean?  Weaning, according to Rabbi Hoshaya, in this case refers to the fact that Isaac was “weaned away from the evil inclination.” At the age of thirteen, a person should be able to distinguish between right and wrong and good from evil. Bar/Bat mitzvah translates to daughter/son of the commandment – or in other words, they are now old enough to fulfill all of the responsibilities of Jewish law.

However, it is not commanded anywhere that a child should or needs to have a bar/bat mitzvah and the accompanying feast (and definitely nowhere is it written that there needs to be a party with a DJ and pretty dancing girls).  A boy at thirteen, and a girl at twelve automatically become a bar/bat mitzvah upon turning that age – even if there is no party, no reading of the Torah or Haftorah, or even if they do not go to temple.  However, the Polish scholar Rabbi Shlomo Luria, stated in the 15^th century that attending the bar/bat mitzvah feast was a “seudat mitzvah” – it is considered a mitzvah to attend the associated feast. The making of the feast is also considered such a mitzvah (Mishnah Brurah §225:6).

What constitutes the celebration of a “bar mitzvah” has changed over the years, and is different for various groups even today.  For instance, the Orthodox community does not believe in the fancy party.  A big feast is held in the honor of the boy, with much food and dancing including many baked goods, and usually includes a derashah (learning/discussion) during the course of the meal. The Orthodox community will include a reading of the Torah by a boy, but not by a girl (whereas the Conservative/Egalitarian movement allows for women to read from the Torah). [Fast Fact: The literacy rate for the Jewish population in ancient times was probably around 10 percent, so it was unlikely that most 13 year olds (or even adults) would have read the Torah until that time.] The Conservative Jew may hold a lavish party with DJs and all the bells and whistles, reminiscent of the Steins (in Keeping up with the Steins).

There are no real rules for how to celebrate a bar/bat mitzvah, but the custom seemed to have become popular about 400 years ago. It was not until after the Middle Ages that literacy amongst Jews (really most people) began to rise, so until then neither the child, nor his father could read Hebrew, or any other language.

There was no single steadfast way to do things. The custom had many different flavors and varieties, and it still does. Outside of the Ashkenazi and Italian Jewish communities, the bar mitzvah was not celebrated before the 1800s, and it was strictly for the boys.  Prior to the 1600s, the Bar Mitzvah celebration consisted of the father saying a special blessing over his son, followed by a festive meal. In the 1500s, the reading of the Torah by the Bar Mitzvah boy was added, as well as a speech. In the 1600s, a test was also given.   The idea of this being a Jewish confirmation did not begin until the 1920 by German Jews. [For a detailed history of Bar Mitzvahs, see Bar Mitzvah, A History by Rabbi Michael Hilton @

https://jps.org/wp-content/uploads/2014/07/HiltonExcerpt.pdf.]

In recent years Bar and Bat Mitzvahs have sometimes gone too far into extravagance. The rich have spent millions of dollars on some outrageous parties that have included performances by top entertainers.  In 2005, David Brooks spent a whopping $10 million on his daughter’s Bat Mitzvah, which included live performances by Aerosmith, Kenny G., Tom Petty, and 50 Cent.

Why 12 and 13?

In the Torah it does not specify at what age a child becomes an “adult.”  There is the story I mention above about Isaac, but it does not really specify the age or if that is the age of adulthood.  The only reference to age in such a sense is when Aaron is asked to take a head count of every male of age 20 and over – for the purposes of allowing them to bear arms (see Numbers 1:20). In the Mishnah, many rabbis differ and argue that different ages or actions distinguish the age of maturity into adulthood. However, the Mishnah does discuss the age at which a person is able to take a vow.  For a female it is 12 years plus one day, and 13 years and one day for a male. [???Source: Shulchan Aruch Harav, Orach Chaim 55:12???] This may be where the notion of those dates originated.  However, it should be noted that these ages are discussed in the section of the Mishnah called the Niddah, because it covers the topic of puberty.

It is interesting to note that the celebration of a birthday was only mentioned once in the Torah (the pharaoh in the story of Joseph).  In ancient times, records of the precise date of birth were rarely kept, so the celebration of birthdays was not very common. The only way they would have known their approximate age was by keeping track of the number of seasons that have passed since their birth.

The Rite of Passage

The bar/bat mitzvah is the rite of passage into adulthood in Judaism. However, this is not something inherent to Jews. Many different religions and cultures have their own rites of passage, and vary greatly from what one might expect. A few of these rites are listed below (many come from a list created by Brian Pegg).

Bravery

• Jumping from high trees with ropes around your ankles so that your head comes as close to the land as possible (South Pacific: Vanuatu People)
• Kill a lion with only a spear [note: this has been outlawed by the government] (Tanzania: Maasai People)
• After learning how to fight, young men would then show their skills in battle against slaves (Ancient Greece: Sparta)
• Either sacrifice or capture and bring a prisoner back to their village (Mecico: Ancient Aztecs)

Physical Pain

• Jumping over cows while men of the village whip the young person (Ethiopia: Hamar Tribe)
• Before a boy’s first hunt, a poison is put into their eyes, then they are beaten and whipped, and then insert the poison of the Giant Leaf Frog into themselves using a wooden needle (Brazil: Matis Tribe)
• The initiates whip each other with sticks (with sharpened points). The winner is chosen by the crowd as to who has become a man (West Africa: Fula People)
• At the age of seven, young boys are taken away for ten years to live in an all-male hut, during which time they engage in nose bleeding, forced vomiting, ingesting semen, and defecation (Papua New Guinea: Sambia People)
• For cleansing purposes: wooden canes are stuck down the boy’s throat until they vomit, reeds are forced up their noses, their tongues are stabbed (Papua New Guinea: Sambia People)
• Initiates are forced to stay away for four days, on the fifth day, while maintaining a smile, they hung from poles by the chest until they passed out. Upon awakening, their little finger is cut off as a sacrifice (United States, North Dakota: Mandan Nation)
• First circumcised without anesthesia, then cut from the head to the scrotum while bleeding over a fire (Australia: Mardudjara Aborigines)
• Young boys put on a glove for ten minutes with the stingers of bullet ants pointing inward – and they cannot flinch (Brazil: Satere-Mawe Tribe)
• Female circumcision – practiced throughout the world

Seclusion

• Sending young men into the forest to fast and reflect (United States: various Native American Tribes)
• Young men and women are circumcised, then secluded from the adults for several months – during which time the initiates would paint themselves white (with clay) and act like wild creatures (Kenya: Okiek Tribe)
• Young men are sent into the wilderness and need to keep themselves alive for 6 months without any help (Australia: various Aboriginal Tribes)
• Young men are shaven, then brought into the wilderness in a hut built for him by his family. At some point someone will come out to circumcise them – they can return to the village when they are healed.
• Young girls, after their first menstruation are secluded in a small chamber for a few months, where they are presumed to have traveled the underworld (Northwest Amazon: Ticuna People)

Physical and Mental Changes

• Young women chisel their teeth to sharp points (Indoneisa: Natives of the Mentawai Islands)
• Young women have their face tattooed with a sharpened piece of wood, which usually takes several hours (West Africa: Fula People)
• Young men are placed into a cage and made to drink a powerful drug which would make them forget everything about their youth.  If it does not work the first time, they will take a second helping (United States: Algonquin Nation)
• Young men are scarred throughout their bodies (scarification), many times into specific patterns. This practice has actually been widespread through history.
• Young women will sit by the river and sing to the flowing water for days at a time in order to end their relationship with the water spirits (Nigeria: Okrika Tribe)
• Young men shave their beards and remove their bulla (an amulet meant to protect youth), and put on their toga virillis (“toga of manhood”) during a celebration called the Liberalia (Ancient Rome)

Celebrations & Ceremonies

• Young girls, at 16, have parties called Sweet Sixteens, which are sometimes very elaborate (United States)
• Upon turning 15, a young girl has a huge party called the Quinceañera (Latin America)
• Usually followed by a reading of the Torah, there is a party to celebrate (Worldwide: Followers of Judaism)
• Young children wore breeches, then between the ages of 2 and 8, they were “unbreeched” and wore dresses or gowns (Western World – 16^th to 19^th century)
• Young women of rich/aristocratic families who were of age had large parties called debutante balls. It originally began as a way to show that a young woman was ready for marriage. (Worldwide)
• Young men and women have a Confirmation ceremony in many religions throughout the world.  The age and ceremonies performed differ between religions and even within each religious sect. (Worldwide)
• Imitates go through the Amrit Sanchar ceremony (Followers of Sikhism)

A Torah Connection

Both the Parsha Shemot and its Haftorah (Isaiah 27:6), which are recited this month, mirror each other in the lesson of redemption for each of the story’s main characters (Moses and Isaiah). Shemot tells the story of how the Israelites were enslaved in Egypt, and a young child named Moses was born, raised by the daughter of the Pharaoh, killed an Egyptian taskmaster to protect a Jew, then fled to the dessert. [Fast Fact: Scholars estimate that it was 210 years between the time the Jews were first enslaved and the killing the Egyptian by Moses; and it was another 60 years between the time Moses fled and returned to Egypt.] When Moses returned to Egypt to free the Israelites, the Pharaoh refused, but G-d promised that there would soon be redemption.  In the Haftorah, the Jewish people were settled in Israel, and had begun to prosper, but the leaders had begun to get drunk and become corrupt.  G-d came to Jacob and said that this too shall pass, and they shall be redeemed.

Another parallel that both of these stories have in common, is that they both make use of variations on the word “fruit.”

• Isaiah 27:6 – Those who came, whom Jacob caused to take root, Israel flourished and blossomed and they filled the face of the world with fruitage.
• Isaiah 27:9 – Therefore, with this shall Jacob’s iniquity be atoned for, and this is all the fruit of removing his sin; by making all the altar stones like crushed chalkstones; asherim and sun-images shall not rise.
• Isaiah 28-1 – Woe is to the crown of the pride of the drunkards of Ephraim and the young fruit of an inferior fig is the position of his glory, which is at the end of a valley of fatness, crushed by wine.
• Isaiah 28:4 And his glorious beauty shall be the young fruit of an inferior fig, which is on the head of the valley of fatness; as a fig that ripens before the summer, which, if the seer sees it, he will swallow it while it is still in his hand.
• Exodus 1:7 The children of Israel were fruitful and swarmed and increased and became very very strong, and the land became filled with them.

The word is being used to describe how the Jewish people have grown and prospered. It is being used to describe just rewards, it is being used to describe coming of age, and it is being used to describe the food.

This was a great segue into the culinary portion of this article – the fruits of Israel, and then more specifically, nature’s candy – grapes.

[In the Torah reading, Moses strikes down an Egyptian taskmaster to save a Jew, who he makes the connection with as one of his “brethren.”  This moment can be thought of as the Bar Mitzvah of Moses, where he grows and matures to understand right and wrong, and the possibly connection to his Jewish roots.]

The Fruit of Israel

Did you know that there are forty different types of fruit grown in Israel?  Besides the five listed as part of the Seven Species of Israel (grapes, figs, pomegranates, olives, and dates – the two grains are wheat and barley) – they are so called because they are the only fruits and grains allowed for use in the Temple.  [Fast fact: only one other fruit is mentioned in the Torah – the apple tree.] Other fruits commonly grown in Israel include avocados, bananas, apples, cherries, plums, nectarines, strawberries, prickly pears, persimmons, and loquat. However, the country’s leading exported fruits include oranges, grapefruit, tangerines, and pomelit (a pomelo and grapefruit hybrid). [Fast fact: Although it is now grown in Israel, the etrog is not indigenous to the region, it was first brought to the Middle East from India sometime in the 7^th century BCE.]

Israel exports over $2 billion in produce each year.  Much of this is due to science, and scientifically engineered fruits and vegetables that last longer and taste better. Some of these new fruits include the Galia melon, nectarine-mango, pomelit, nano watermelon, and the Anna apple.

Grapes

Archeologists have found evidence (in Gadachrilli Gora, Republic of Georgia) that humans began cultivating grapes as early as 6500 BCE – possibly one of the earliest fruits cultivated by humans. Grapes are classified as being a type of berry. There are two major species of grapes – New World (genus vitus) found in the Americas and Old World (vitis  vinifera) found in Asia and Europe.  However, there are over ten thousand varieties of grapes.  Although grapes are used in the making of most wines very few varieties (about 50) can be used for wine making.

By 4000 BCE, the fruit was grown throughout Western Asia and even in Northern Africa (e.g., Nile Delta). When the Hittites expanded their empire further into the Mediterranean area around 3000 BCE, they brought the grape along with them. Grapes were spread further throughout Europe by the Romans, although the growing of grapes, and the making of wine was mostly under the auspicious of monasteries.  They not only used grape for wine or as a food, they also created syrups with the grapes that they would use as sweeteners (since sugar was almost non-existent at that time).

When Europeans first came to the Americas, they brought cuttings of their Old World grapes with them, but they could not survive the climate.  Americans improved upon the indigenous New World grapes until they came upon the Concord grape, which is very popular today.

Wine

Most of us can agree that grapes are great to eat, but most grape production is used for wine making.  The act of making wine is thousands of years old. There is evidence of a winery existing in ancient Armenia in 4100 BCE.  References to wine are found in antiquity, including the Torah, Egyptian hieroglyphics, and many other ancient texts. A 3,700 year old wine cellar was discovered in Northern Israel which they estimate could hold the equivalent of 3,000 bottles of wine.

[Note: Do to the length of this article I will most be discussing wine in greater detail at a future date]

The Recipe

Although you can use grapes in many recipes to make great dishes – especially desserts, here’s a recipe for a grape syrup with you can use to accompany and enhance many of your own dishes, such as pancakes, waffles, and yogurts.

Ingredients

2 lbs                Concord grapes (de-stemmed)

¼ cup              Water

1 ½ cup           Sugar

Directions

1) Place grapes into pot with water and heat

2) Once at a boil reduce heat, cover and simmer for 15 minutes (stir occasionally), then let cool

3) Strain grape “juice” with colander

4) Strain juice again through cheesecloth

5) Place the juice and sugar in a saucepan and heat

6) Once at a boil reduce heat and simmer for approximately10 minutes when juice begins to thicken

7) Take off heat and place into sealed glass jars – store in refrigerator

Keep on Cookin’

Chef Lon

Sources

“25 Crazy Rites of Passage” (Brian Pegg: list.com.com: 2017) @ http://list25.com/25-crazy-rites-of-passage/

“Agriculture in Israel” (Wikipedia.org) @ https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Agriculture_in_Israel

“The Bar Mitzvah” (BeingJewish.com) @ http://www.beingjewish.com/cycle/barmitzva.html

“Bar Mitzvah, A History” (Rabbi Michael Hilton: JPS.org: 2014) @ https://jps.org/wp-content/uploads/2014/07/HiltonExcerpt.pdf

“The Birth and Afterlife of Israel’s Precious Etrog Fruit” (Emily Harris: The Salt: 201) @ https://www.npr.org/sections/thesalt/2014/10/03/353311090/the-birth-and-afterlife-of-israels-precious-etrog-fruit

“Etrog” (Jewish Virtual Library) @ http://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/etrog

“Fruit in the Bible” (David Moster: BiblicalArcheology.com: 2017) @ https://www.biblicalarchaeology.org/daily/ancient-cultures/daily-life-and-practice/fruit-in-the-bible/

“Grapes: A Brief History” (University of Missouri Integrated Pest Management: 2013) @ https://ipm.missouri.edu/MEG/2013/8/Grapes-A-Brief-History/

“How Wine Colonized the World” (VinePair.com) @ https://vinepair.com/wine-colonized-world-wine-history/#0

“The Laws of Bar Mitzvah” (Aryeh Citron: Chabad.org) @ http://www.chabad.org/library/article_cdo/aid/1048736/jewish/The-Laws-of-Bar-Mitzvah.htm#footnote1a1048736

“The Most Star-Studded Bar Mitzvahs” (The Daily Beast: 2013) @ https://www.thedailybeast.com/the-most-star-studded-bar-mitzvahs-photos

“The Origin and History of Grapes” (Rutuja Jathar: Buzzle.com: 2011) @ https://www.buzzle.com/articles/the-origin-and-history-of-grapes.html

“Top 12 New Fruit and Vegetables Developed in Israel” (Abigail Klein Leichman: Israel21c.org: 2013) @ https://www.israel21c.org/top-12-new-fruit-and-vegetables-species-developed-in-israel/

“What is the Origin of the Bar Mitzvah Celebration?” (Baruch S. Davidson: Chabad.org) @ http://www.chabad.org/library/article_cdo/aid/484213/jewish/What-is-the-Origin-of-the-Bar-Mitzvah-Celebration.htm

Eat Onions and Sit in the Shade; The Non-Traditional Passover

[Updated 2023]

An onion, like Judaism, is constructed of many layers.  Not every onion is the same, nor is every Jew.  As I had mentioned in a past article, there was once an active practicing Jewish community in China.  Many years ago, a Jewish merchant from England was conducting business in town, and decided to pray in the town’s synagogue for Shabbat.  When he entered, a group of people walked over to see what this foreigner was doing in their house of worship.  After answering that he was there to pray, one of the congregants exclaimed, “funny, you don’t look Jewish.” Just as each Jew appears differently, members of the Judaic faith pray differently, observe differently, and although there are shared traditions and customs followed by most Jews that have been passed down for millennium, some Jews (usually depending on ancestral geography) have tacked on their own unique traditions for celebrating holidays and occasions. 

This month, the Jewish people celebrate the holiday of Passover, or Pesach in Hebrew (פֶּסַח‎). Although there are some clear-cut rules to follow (e.g., it begins on the Hebrew date of the 15^th of Nissan, and no eating of chumetz (food that rises), Jews from various cultures and regions of the world have their own unique traditions to augment those rules (e.g., one region uses onions as part of their celebration).

Picture of a Seder Plate [Source: Wikipedia ]

Modern Additions to the (American) Passover Table

Cup of Miriam

One of the non-traditional traditions I have seen practiced is the addition of the Kos Miriam (Cup of Miriam, filled with water) to the Seder table [Miriam was the sister of Moses].  It represents Miriam’s Well, a source of nourishment for the Hebrews during the Exodus, but it also provides recognition to the women in the story of the Exodus, and their importance. [Note: A Seder is the traditional meal and prayers for the first (or first two) days of Passover.]

Cup of Elijah

It is interesting to note that the Cup of Elijah, which has become a staple at most modern Seders, was not always a part of the traditional part of the Passover table.  This tradition may not have begun until around the 1^st century, as referenced by the (minority) opinion of Rabbi Tarfon’s (in Pesachim 118a) in regard to the question of allowing for more than four cups of wine to be consumed during the Passover Seder, which he replied “over the fifth cup we recite the great Hallel.”  However, his answer was not really clear as to whether he was referring to the Cup of Elijah. It was not until another millennium that a Jewish scholar made a statement on a fifth cup, when Maimonides wrote that one should have a fifth cup (although it is not mandatory). However, some interpret this in different ways; it is believed that a fifth cup should be filled with wine in honor of Maimonides, but not to be touched, while others are of the opinion that it should be drunk. The tradition of including a Cup of Elijah is more a more prevalent for Ashkenazi Jews (Jew’s who’s ancestors live(d) in Eastern Europe).

Orange (or Tangerine)

Another tradition I have seen being implemented is the placement of an orange (sometimes a tangerine) on the Seder table.  The story’s origin usual told is as follows: At a conference, Dr. Susannah Herschel was speaking about a woman’s right to being ordained as a rabbi.  An angry orthodox man got up and yelled “a woman belongs on the pulpit, like an orange belongs on a Seder table.”

That story, although amusing, is false.  According to Herschel, the idea came about when she was speaking to a woman writing a feminist Haggadah (the prayer book used during the Passover Seder). The woman asked her rabbi if there is room in Judaism for lesbians, and the rabbi answered “there is as much room in Judaism for a lesbian as there is for a crust of bread on the Seder plate.”  Since she could not place bread on the Passover table, the following year she added an orange because “it suggests the fruitfulness for all Jews when lesbians and gay men are contributing and active members of Jewish life.”

Rice / Kitnyot

Another regionalized tradition I have also experienced is the use of rice by Sephardic Jews (Iberian Peninsula) during this holiday (note that during Passover, the use of leavened bread and other food that rises is usually prohibited.) The first time I went to a Sephardic home for a Seder as an older child I was taken back when I saw rice being served during the festive meal, but I quickly learned to enjoy this tradition. 

In 2016, this 800 year old rule / guidance was modified by the leaders of the Conservative movement, stating that kitnyot (rice and beans) are now allowable to be eaten during the holiday of Passover. That being said, many Conservative Jews and all Orthodox Jews still follow the older ruling. [Note: as I re-read this passage in early 2022, I wonder how many Conservative Jews have begun eating kitnyot during the holiday. In both 2020 and 2021 I did purchase rice, but I was never able to get myself to cook it. Am I alone, or have most Conservative Jews still not warmed up to this idea – maybe I will try to do some research into it this year.]

Olives

The addition of olives to the Seder table has become a recent tradition. The olives are meant to symbolize the hope for peace between the Israelis and the Palestinians.  The practice may have begun in 2008 in connection with the Trees of Reconciliation project, in which donations were being sought to provide 3000 olive trees to Palestinian farmers.

Artichokes

In-line with promoting peace and friendship amongst people, some observers add the artichoke to promote interfaith-friendly Seders.  Just like real life, where things are rough on the outside, but friendly on the inside, the artichoke is a vegetable with a prickly exterior and a soft heart/inside.

Passover Traditions from Around the World

Besides the more modern traditions I have highlighted above, there are also many other traditions that come from specific regions of the world.  Some of them are many centuries old. Unfortunately, while the observance of these customs are still carried out by descendants of from the following countries, they are not being enjoyed in their countries of origin since no Jews (or very few) actually live there today.

Afghanistan – During the recitation of the 10 plagues, the host of the Seder takes out  scallions (a type of onion) and then uses the scallions to whip the other guests while singing “Dayenu” (to represent the Egyptian slave drivers). “Dayenu” is a song about Passover and the Pharaoh’s mistreatment of the Hebrews during Biblical times. Dayenu translates to “it would have been enough.” [Fast Fact: At one time there was a thriving Jewish community in Afghanistan (e.g., Pashtun), now there may only be one Jew living in the country.] Note that a similar custom takes place in Italy.

Cuba – Because apples and nuts were hard to buy in Cuba, they serve a charoset that is made with matzah, honey, cinnamon, and wine.  They call it the “Charoset of the Oppressed” due to both its symbolism with the holiday, and their own oppression and antisemetism in Cuba.

Egypt (and Morocco) – Three pieces of matzah are placed in a napkin and passed around from one person to another. The person would first place the matzoah on their right shoulder and would be asked “Where are you from?” The person would answer “I am from Egypt.”  They would then be asked, “Where are you going?”  The person would then move the bundle to their left shoulder and answer “I am going to Jerusalem.”

Ethiopia – Break their dinner plates to symbolize a break from the past in which most were airlifted to Israel to avoid persecution (in what was called Operation Moses (see the Passover connection?)). They also avoid fermented dairy.

Gibraltar – The person preparing the Seder meal literally adds pieces of a brick to the charoset (a dish made to symbolize the mortar used by the Jews in Egypt).  In actually, they add a very little bit of dust from the brick.

Hungary – In Hungary, the host/hostess places gold and silver jewelry on the Seder table. This tradition is in reference to a passage in the Torah (Exodus 12:35), where Moses instructs the Hebrews to ask the Egyptians for silver, gold, and clothing before the Exodus.

India (city of Cochin) – Beginning just after Chanukah, Cochin Jews begin their clean-up of chametz, including the inspection of every grain of rice is inspected for defects.

Italy (Sicily & Sardinia) & Tunisia – The head of the household brings out the Seder plate on their head – then gives it to a person sitting at the table who will hold it for a few seconds before passing it to the next person (who also will hold it for a few seconds). It will be passed around until everyone is able to hold it – this symbolizes the burdens the Hebrews had while in Egypt. Italians also have a similar custom to Afghanistan, where each person at the table is given a scallion and whips their seat-mates while singing Dayenu.

Mexico (northern) – Although most in some northern regions of Mexico cannot remember why they make it, each year in the early spring they make an unleavened bread called Pan de Semita (translated in English to “Semetic bread”). It is made with 2 cups of flour, 1/2 cup of hot water and olive oil.  They refer to it as semetic bread because pork (or pork-product oil) is not allowed to be used.  It may have originally come from marranos, early Spanish settlors that had to come to this region.  Many were marranos, Jews that were forced to convert to Christianity, but some still practiced Judaism in secret when they could; this could be a remanence of an old tradition from that time period.

Morocco – Not only is a goblet of wine set aside for Elijah, but an elaborately decorated chair is also set aside for the prophet. Moroccan Jews also have the custom of wearing white to the Seder (as do some Orthodox communities). The Seder plate is also covered by an elaborately decorated cover is draped over the pate and would be brought to the table with big fanfare – then placed upon the head of a child and rotated for all to see before being set on the table.

Poland (town of Gora Kalwa) – Polish Jews reenact the crossing of the Red Sea by pouring water on the floor, lifting up their coats, and walk over the water. They would also recite the names of the towns they would cross, taking a drink of wine for each town mentioned.

Russia (Moscow) – Since celebrating Judaism was illegal in the Soviet Union, underground bakeries would clandestinely bake and distribute matzah throughout the city. Jewish families would gather at a designated house for a dinner and although no word of Passover was mentioned, the elder matriarch would get up after the meal and make a toast to freedom (probably with vodka) and thank the wife or host for “organizing a Seder that preserves the Judaism they almost lost.”

Sephardim – In some Sephardic communities, it is a custom to recite the story of the Exodus while in costume (a costume custom). The guests tell tales of the Exodus as though they were actually there. Rice, although considered as something not to be eaten on Passover (also referred to as kitniyot) is traditionally eaten during the holiday. Also whereas the Ashkenazi tradition of making charoset is with apples, the main ingredient in Sephardic charoset are dates. During a Sephardic Seder the prayer over wine is only said twice, since these two prayers covers all four cups. The leader of the Seder will also traditionally dress in white.

Syria – The children at the table would break matza into the Hebrew letters of a “daled” and “vav.” When added together, they equal 10, which is the number of plagues that G-d brought upon the Pharaoh and the Egyptians.

Turkey – At the conclusion of the Seder, Turkish Jews take a sprig of parsley, and recite a verse in Arabic.

Yemen (region of Adeni) – Yemeni Jews eat eggs as the main course of the Seder. They also dropping a bit of wine out of the glass for each of the 10 plagues. However, unlike the tradition I grew up (take the wine with your pinky and drop it on the side of the dish), their custom directs participants to dropping the wine into another glass, which they then throw into the garden to cast the plagues onto their enemies. Iraqui Jews have a similar tradition, but they drip the wine into bowls instead of cups.

Iraq, Kurdistan, Yemen – The host would put the afikoman (one of the three “main” matzah used during the Seder) into a sack, and walk around the room while guest ask them a series of questions as follows: Guests: “Where are you coming from?”; Host: “Egypt”; Guests: “Where are you going to?”; Host: “Israel” (or “Jerusalem”)

Spain, Turkey, Tunisia, and Morocco – The host would walk around the table three times with the Seder plate and hit (lightly tap) the guests on the head. This represents the uprooting of the Jewish people from Egypt, and allowing for the guests to ask why.

Something to ponder: In the world of science, some people are growing their vegetables hydroponically (the growing of plants without soil), which may become more standard in the future.  Some people do grow parsley (karpas) hydroponically and want to use it for their Seder plate. The question becomes, since it is not grown in the ground, does the prayer for vegetables need to be changed, which is “Blessed are You, Lord our G-d, King of the Universe, who creates the fruit of the earth”? From what I have found so far, this issue is machloket ha’poskim, which means that this issue is up for debate and has not been ruled upon by any higher authority.

As you can see, there are many different traditions that vary from region to region or even from family to family.  Just because the tradition is not ancestrally yours, does not mean you cannot adopt it and bring something new to your Seder table.  Maybe for this Passover, add a few scallions.

Alliums

When you walk into the supermarket there are at least four or five different items labeled  “onions” in the produce section (sometimes more).  Onions are a part of the genus family called alliums.  Subgroups of this family include onions, but pertain to many other vegetables that we usually call onions, such as scallions.  Some alliums can be smaller than one inch in diameter and others are larger than 4.5 inches in diameter. Some of the more common types include: Leeks (leafy, and look like jumbo scallions), pearl onions (small in size, and also called baby onions), Bermuda/red onions (known for their reddish color), shallots (small and sweet), sweet onions (larger onions such as Vidalia), white onions, and yellow onions.   Garlic is also a member of the allium family and closely related to onions. [Fast Fact: allium is Greek for “garlic.”]

Scallions, however are not technically onions, they are the immature plants of a bulbing onion before it becomes fully formed (i.e., the plant of the onion, but not the onion itself). Scallions can come in many different varieties, and are called by different names depending on the region they originated, such as: green onion, new onions, welsh onion, spring onion, salad onion, and Japanese bunching onion (to name a few). [Fast fact: scallions are named green onions in Israel (בצל ירוק pronounced batzal yaroq).] The origin of the etymology for name scallion can be traced back to ancient Greece, from the word ασκολόνιον (pronounced askolonion) which may have come from the ancient Canaan city of Ashkelon (where it (may) have originally been imported from). The scallion may have first grown somewhere in Asia, and the earliest know mention of scallions is in a 2000 year old book written in China about agriculture and medical use of plants entitled Shen Nong Ben Cao Jing.  Scallions have been used by many different cultures through the millennium for their healing properties ranging from stopping running noses, to stopping headaches, and even remedying kidney stones (however, there have not been any large modern day medical studies to confirm any of these remedies).

History of Onions

One of the Passover traditions discussed above include the use of scallions as mock whips, scallions as noted are a type of onion.  Although sources state that there are many different variations of onions in size, taste, and color, and there are between 600 and 920 species of allium in the world.

Onions have been around for eons, and it is very likely that the diet of our pre-historic ancestors included onions.  Because onions are small and due to their many layers, they have left very little trace of their physical existence the actual origin of onions are under debate. Many scholars believe that onions may have first developed in central Asia, while others have hypothesized that they may have first grown in the area around modern Iran and western Pakistan.  However, it is generally believed that onions began to be cultivated about 5000-5500 years ago. Mention of this wonderous food has been mentioned in many ancient writings, such as:

• There is evidence that the ancient Egyptians were growing onions as far back as 3500 BCE (they were included in Egyptian tombs to symbolize eternity).
• Onions were mentioned in the bible (Numbers 11:5).
• The mention of onions can be found in the ancient Indian treatise Charaka Samhita (between 100 and 200 BCE).
• The Greek physician Dioscorides wrote about the medical benefits of onions in the 1^st century.

Because onions can be grown in most environments and most climates, they spread and became a staple in diets of people all over the world.  Onions were first introduced to the Americas by Columbus during his early voyages.  It is interesting to mention that, although the Pilgrims brought onions to cultivate with them when they came to settle in Plymouth, MA in 1620, a wild strain of the onion was already found growing in the northern fields, thought to have been brought by Columbus a century and a half earlier (and hundreds of miles away).

Picture of different onions [Source: Wikipedia; By © User:Colin / Wikimedia Commons, CC BY-SA 3.0]

Onions have been used by physicians for hundreds of years.  In one recent study, it was shown that onions may help with the cardiovascular system and decrease the risk of heart attack, stroke, and heart disease. Another study showed that onions may lower blood-sugar levels. Onions may also help with gastrointestinal issues and assist to decrease bone loss. The legendary physician Maimonides recommended feeding onions to people that are overweight, and would prescribe it as a cure for vomiting. Up until the past century, onions were used to detect pregnancy.

Onions in Judaism

Onions were one of the foods that were grown in the times of Moses. In fact, onions are mentioned in Torah in Numbers 11:5 in a paragraph where the Hebrews are complaining about eating manna in the desert and remembering the things they enjoyed while under the shackles of the Pharaoh, as follows:

“We remember the fish, which we did eat in Mitzrayim at no cost; the cucumbers, and the melons, and the leeks, and the onions, and the garlic”

 [Note: this passage was read last month in temple.]

According to Rashi (a rabbi that wrote extensive commentary on the Torah), the reason the manna did not taste like the foods listed above is that these items are those that were thought to have been bad to give a pregnant woman, and G-d did not want the Hebrew people to fear that what they ate would be of harm to them.  At the time, this made sense, however it must be noted that many modern sources show that onions are actually beneficial to pregnant women. In hindsight, there may be some truth in what Rashi wrote 1000 years ago; WebMD provides a warning to those that are pregnant or breastfeeding: “There is not enough reliable information about the safety of taking onion as a medicine if you are pregnant or breast-feeding. Stay on the safe side and avoid using onion in amounts larger than usual food amounts.”

Peeled onions have been the focus of debate amongst biblical scholars.  There is a statement in the Gemara (a biblical commentary) made by Rabbi Shimon Bar Yochai (in Gemara Nidda 17a) that “one who eats a peeled onion, egg or garlic that has been left sitting out overnight is literally endangering his life, and will be ultimately judged as a person who took his own life.”  However, the Talmud does cite the benefits of onions, such as in Nedarim 66a, which provides that onions are good for the heart and that they are good to treat a wound (Tosefta Shabbat 5:3-4). But it does also warn that eating onions after bloodletting can be dangerous (Avodah Zara 29a) and that they can be bad for the stomach (Nedarim 26b).

Rabbi Judah used to state the following adverb: “Eat onions and sit in the shade.” (Pes. 114a) This means that a person should not desire luxuries and be content with what little one has.

As we have read above, onions have been used as a part of different Jewish customs, like the use of scallions during the Seder. Besides the various foods brought to the Seder, the Seders themselves can sometimes be different in form and meaning.

 A Different Kind of Seder

Besides the addition of various traditions to the Seder listed earlier in this article, many recent Seders have been transformed to adapt to the lifestyles and feelings of the today’s modern points of view:

Vegetarian / Vegan Seders, which include the following items on the Seder plate:

• Matzah
• Charoset – traditional recipe using apples, nuts, and spices
• Zeroa – fresh beet – to replace the shank bone (this is permitted in the Talmud, as per Rav Huna in Pesahim 114b); instead of beets, some people use a combination of dry barley wheat, olives, and grapes
• Maror – bitter herbs
• Beitzah – hardboiled egg – silky avocado or stemmed white eggplant
• Karpas – karpas

Chocolate Seders, for the chocolate lover in each of us:

• Matza – Chocolate covered matza
• Zeroa – ice cream drumstick
• Beitzah – chocolate eggs
• Maror – Dark chocolate with horseradish
• Charoset – chocolate covered charoset truffles
• Karpas – green colored chocolate – or strawberries dipped in chocolate, with stems still on
• Kiddush cup – chocolate liquor or chocolate wine

Freedom Seders, a Seder which celebrates the liberation of Jews and other people – most notably the African Americans during the 1960s.

Tu B’Shvat Seder, the seder for the trees, which is held on the holiday of Tu B’Shvat, which includes many different types of fruit. [Fast Fact: As a side point, Jesus’ last supper is believed to have been a Passover Seder.]

Different Hagaddahs

Haggadot are a part of the Jewish experience.  It is something that many of us can each associate with when we think about our own Jewish histories.  When the Nazi’s told the Jews to pack, they were limited in space and weight (8-9 pounds). Although the space was limited to bare essentials, many Jews still packed and carried objects of their religion.  In fact, a half-burned haggadah was recently found in an excavation near the Chelmo concentration camp. 

The haggadah has evolved over time. The contents within the haggadah you grew up with and have used each year is not what was in the hagadaj when it was first created.  When was that, you ask?  Well experts are not sure.  It may have been compiled around the time of Rabbi Yehuddah bar Elai (about 170 BCE), when the Talmud was also being complied), however, since there is a lot of contents from the time of the Second Temple, it may have originally been compiled as early as 500-516 BCE. Note that ehe earliest mention of a Seder is in the Talmud (Pesachim 10:5) by Rabbi Gamaliel the Elder in 90 BCE, but he did not mention the use of a haggadah during the meal, which leads scholars to ask if the haggadot were widely used by that time in history, not at all, or if Rabbi Gamaliel just did not include it in his writing.

The prayers and stories in the haggadah evolved over the next eight or nine centuries, until the basic version we follow today was compiled in 860 by the Geonim (Jewish teachers).  As mentioned, the contents of the earlier haggadahs were different than they are today. For instance the story of the Four Sons was not included, and the Four Questions only numbered three.

The early haggadahs were also part of the Siddur (prayer book), and did not become a separate booklet until the 13^th century. It was during the 13th century that illuminated versions of the haggadah were produced, including the famous Sarajevo Haggadah. The first known mass-printed haggadah was printed in  (approximately) 1482 in Spain (only ten years prior to all things Jewish were banned). In 1590, the song “Chad Gadya” (“one little goat”) was added to a haggadah printed in Progue.  In 1609, a haggadah in Venice included a list of the 10 plagues in Hebrew.  In 1907, the first Reform Judaism version of the haggadah was written.

One of the most well-known haggadot has its beginning as a marketing tool. In an attempt to change the custom of not drinking coffee on Passover (since it was thought that a coffee bean was the same as a legume), the owner of Maxwell House began printing and distributing their own hagaddahs (for free) in 1932 (they included ads for coffee). The Maxwell House haggadah, known for its simplicity, became the most used haggadah for most American families during the 20^th century. It should also be pointed out that the first haggadah by the reconstructionist movement was published in 1941. 

Because they are so personal, over the last few decades, new hagadas have been published by various groups to express the social, environmental, religious, and other feelings of the hosts of the Seder.  Some of these haggadas (new and old) include the following:

• Maxwell House – which is what my family has used for most of my childhood into adulthood.
• Feminist / Egalitarian
• Freedom Seder Hagaddah (as explained above)
• Liberal views
• Conservative views
• Haggada supplements – some people add their own supplemental songs, poems, etc., to add to whatever haggadah they are using
• Different translations – (even fictional languages, such as Klingon)
• For children
• Interfaith
• For Art lovers
• Quick Seder (30 minute seder)
• Internet
• For JuBus (Jewish Buddhists)
• And many more.

Because I have such a diverse family (of Jews and non-Jews), and with virtual Seders being a “thing” during this era of COVID, I have created a companion to the traditional Maxwell House Seder to meet the needs of myself, my family, and friends that are guests at my house.  It is more suited to the Reform, Conservative, and interfaith communities, especially since the use of the Internet is used (see An Interactive Companion to the Passover Haggadah).  I have included activities, stories, and side-facts to keep my guests entertained and engaged, while also trying to teach them something (especially the children). Although the Seder can be conducted virtually, most of the people for this particular Seder attended in-person.

multi-religious / cultural integration seder

In 2023 I had the opportunity to organize and run a “Third Seder” on the Sunday of the holiday, which also corresponded with the Christian holiday of Easter Sunday.  I have a diverse extended family, so this was an opportunity for the family to get together, but also integrate our overall diversity into the service.

To begin the Seder, instead of first looking at the Seder Plate (as is the usual tradition) and discussing the symbolism of each item, I began by showing a picture of the Last Supper by Davinci.  We discussed the items that were on the table in the painting (or any Seder during the early 1st century ACE) and what was missing (and I incorporated information about the evolution of the Haggadah and various Passover traditions (e.g., Seder plate). The conversation also went into the historicity of the Last Supper in the gospels of Matt, Mark, and Luke.

Afterwards, we followed the basic order of the Seder, but did skip a few of the sections, or watched a video on the story of Moses and the exodus instead of doing much of the reading. Some of it followed the Interactive Companion to the Passover Haggadah that I created during the COVID Pandemic.

Being myself and being a Third Seder (held earlier in the day), I was able to create a non-traditional Passover menu.  A lot of the menu was based on symbolism of both Judaism and Christianity.  Two of the Christian symbolism for food I focused on was carrots, fish,  and more so for eggs.  Many of the dishes did include one or all three of these items.  To make it easier to do so, it was also a dairy meal. Here’s a copy of the menu, in case you were interested:

Pre-Appetizers (Seder Snacks)

• Raw Vegetables
• Charoset
• Matzah (selection of: shmura, plain, and egg) N

Appetizers

• Gefilte Fish (w/ boiled carrots)
• Devilled Eggs
• Avocado (Matzah) Toast (with choice of soft-boiled quail eggs or (faux) kani

Entrees

• Bacalhau à Gomes de Sá (traditional Brazilian dish served during Easter)
• Duck, Duck, Brie (Matza Brie with Duck eggs instead of Chicken eggs)
• Lasagna di Pasqua Ebraica (yes, with matzah)
• Various Spreads . . .
  • Spreads include: lox (smoked salmon), cream cheese, butter, jellies, and more
• Potato Blintzes (store-bought – Frankels)
• Salad
• Tzimmes
• Yerakot B’Garil (pan-grilled seasonal vegetables drizzled with olive oil)

seder activity Idea

Although there were not many at my most recent Seder (2017), a few days beforehand, I asked all guests to tell me a place (or two) that they would like to travel in a year from now. I wrote down their answers and went to work doing research on how they would be able to celebrate Passover in the countries they chose (based on local customs and traditions). During the Seder I had the guest locate the country on a large map, then I discussed:

• any different Passover traditions in that country/region of the world (as highlighted above),
• the availability of Kosher and Kosher for Passover food, 
• the number of Jews living in the country,
• and if a Jewish synagogue existed within the country. 

I concluded by discussing the national food of the country. It worked out very well and was (mostly) enjoyed by both the young and old [Note: I had each person actually chose two countries – I should have limited it to one, it would have been shorter and been better for those with short attention spans.]

Recipe for scallion pancakes

Since scallions are the culinary focus of this article, how about a recipe for scallion pancakes.  This is something that you can even place on your Seder table for the festive meal to provide a little International flair , along with the story of Passover traditions from other areas in the world.  You can even purchase more scallions than you need for the recipe and add the Afghanistan tradition to your own.

Ingredients

1 cup   Scallions (to make 1 cup chopped – about 1 bunch/10 scallions)

2 cups  Flour (all purpose)

½ tsb   Salt

1 tbs    Soy Sauce

1          Egg

14 oz   Water

2 Tbs   Oil (for frying)

Directions

1) Mix flour, water, egg, and soy sauce, then set aside for 10 minutes

2) Add scallions and mix

3) Heat oil

4) Scoop flour/scallion batter into oil

5) Cook pancakes for about 2 minutes on each side (until each side is golden brown)

For other Passover related articles in FoodHistoryReligion see the following:

• Bread, the Symbol of Jewish History [The important of bread (even unleavened in Jewish history – with a great matzah brie recipe.]
• Eat Onions and Sit in the Shade: The Non-Traditional Passover [Discusses the many traditions and customs many people of different cultures and countries observe for the holiday of Passover; includes a recipe for scallion pancakes.]
• Ezekiel: From Sheep to Spaceships [Provides information on Shabbat HaChodesh (the shabbat before Pesach) and the Pascal lamb; also analyzes Ezekiel’s description of aliens; with a recipe for roasted lamb and potatoes.]
• Let My People Go: Passover and Breaking the Chains of Slavery [This article looks at how slavery is viewed and dealt with in the bible; also covers bitter herbs and horseradish with a recipe for red apricot crain.]
• Sigd, Seharane, and Mimouna – The Other Jewish Holidays [Did you know that Seharane and Mimouna are celebrated in conjunction with Passover? Read to find out more, including a recipe for moffletta pancakes to celebrate Mimouna.]
• An Interactive Companion to the Passover Haggadah (w/ Multimedia) [An interactive supplement to the traditional hagadah for those that will celebrate virtually.]
• Judaism During the Coronavirus (COVID-19) Pandemic: Virtual Seders and Other Options [A synopsis of the rules (halacha) that were sometimes bent (or remained in effect) during the holiday, even during the health crisis.]

 Sources

Websites

“7 Passover Traditions Around the World” (Natalia Sloam: TheDailyMeal.com: 2014) @ http://www.thedailymeal.com/7-passover-traditions-around-world/41114

 “10 Unusual Passover Traditions” (Yoni Sherezin: Times of Israel: 2013 @ http://blogs.timesofisrael.com/10-of-the-darndest-passover-traditions/

 “A Celebration of Passover Customs from Around the World!” (Mocha Juden: 2016) @ http://mochajuden.com/?p=4179

 “A Haggadah for a Socially Responsible Chocolate Seder” (Rabbi Deborah R. Prinz) @ http://onthechocolatetrail.org/wp-content/uploads/2015/04/A-Haggadah-for-a-Chocolate-Seder.pdf

 “All About Allium Vegetables” (Vegetable Expert Staff) @ https://www.thevegetariansite.com/health_allium.htm

 “Chronology, History, and Timeline of the Haggadah” (Elimelech David Ha-Levi) @ http://www.angelfire.com/pa2/passover/haggadah-chronology-timeline.html

 “Different Types of Onions” (The Nibble) @ http://www.thenibble.com/reviews/main/vegetables/different-types-of-onions.asp

 “For the First Time in 800 Years, Rice and Beans are Kosher for Passover” (Smithsonian: 2016) @ http://www.smithsonianmag.com/smart-news/first-time-800-years-rice-and-beans-are-kosher-passover-180958856/

 “Guide to Vegan Passover Seder” (Abigail Wick: VegNews: 2014) @ http://vegnews.com/articles/page.do?pageId=1851&catId=2

 “History of Onions” (National Onion Association) @ https://www.onions-usa.org/all-about-onions/history-of-onions

 “Is it Safe to Eat Onions During Pregnancy?” (Manjiri Kochrekar: Mom Junction: 2015) @ http://www.momjunction.com/articles/onions-during-pregnancy_00359009/#gref

“List of Onions” (Wikipedia.org) @ https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_onions  

“Miriam’s Cup” (Tamara Cohen: MyJewishLearning.com) @ http://www.myjewishlearning.com/article/miriams-cup/

 “The Missing Fifth – An Extract From Rabbi Sacks’ Hagadda” (Jonathan Sacks: RabbiSacks.org: 2015) @ http://rabbisacks.org/the-missing-fifth-an-extract-from-rabbi-sacks-haggada/

 “Non-Traditional Items Showing Up on Seder Plates” (JPost.com: 2011) @ http://www.jpost.com/Features/In-Thespotlight/Non-traditional-items-showing-up-on-Seder-plates

“The Odd Account of the Overnight Onion” (Rabbi Yehuda Spitz: Ohr Somayach: 2012) @ http://ohr.edu/this_week/insights_into_halacha/5213

“Olives on the Seder Plate” (Haggadot.com) @ http://www.haggadot.com/clip/olives-seder-plate

“Onion” (Jewish Virtual Library) @ http://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/onion

“Onions” (Katherine White and Jonathan Zellner: Hamilton College: 2008) @ http://academics.hamilton.edu/foodforthought/our_research_files/allium.pdf

“Onion History – Origin and History of Onions” (VegetableFacts.net) @ http://www.vegetablefacts.net/vegetable-history/history-of-onions/

“Onions in the Talmud” (Robin Burger) @ file:///C:/Users/u0061580/Downloads/734455.pdf 

“The Onion Plot” (Yerachmiel Tilles: Chabad.org) @ http://www.chabad.org/library/article_cdo/aid/1399/jewish/The-Onion-Plot.htm

“Onions” (Robin Burger: Derech HaTeva) @ file:///C:/Users/u0061580/Downloads/734455.pdf

“Pregnancy in Ancient Rome” (Natasha Sheldon: Decoded Pregnancy: 2013) @ http://decodedpregnancy.com/pregnancy-ancient-rome/3256/

“The Real Story Behind the Orange on the Seder Plate” (Anita Silvert: Jewish United Fund: 2012) @ https://www.juf.org/news/world.aspx?id=414773

“Scalion” (Wikipedia) @ https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scallion

“Scallions” (Encyclopedia.com) @ http://www.encyclopedia.com/plants-and-animals/plants/plants/scallion

“Sephardic Passover Traditions” (Rabbi Barbara Aiello: RabbiBarbara.com: 2021) @ https://www.rabbibarbara.com/sephardic-passover/

Books:

“Cyclopaedia of Biblical, Theological, and Ecclesiastical Literature, Volume 7” @ https://books.google.com/books?id=Z9EBrkBE4-oC&pg=PA376&lpg=PA376&dq=onions+in+the+talmud&source=bl&ots=dl97hEKgwF&sig=RDuIyvu9USV1XPv-MgpOyFDgn_k&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwi9372Nwu_RAhUorlQKHatoDdY4ChDoAQg2MAY#v=onepage&q=onions%20in%20the%20talmud&f=false

“Enclyclopedia of Medicine in the Bible and the Talmud” @ https://books.google.com/books?id=Lbv7gJ5lrFMC&pg=PA233&lpg=PA233&dq=onions+in+the+talmud&source=bl&ots=8mk5-zisMG&sig=8gy8yb9OM8ZPW8rT6nc7zEjfGVg&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwiFj_iPwO_RAhXG7YMKHdMoA6sQ6AEIRjAH#v=onepage&q=onions%20in%20the%20talmud&f=false